目錄:

一、交易成本理論(TCT)的簡要學術發展史

二、buy or make?——TCT的核心問題

三、有限理性(bounded rationality)與機會主義(opportunism)——TCT的兩個基本行為假設

四、資產專用性、不確定性和交易頻率——交易的三大維度(Dimensions of Transactions)

五、三種治理模式(Governance Modes)——Markets, Hierarchies, and Hybrids

六、總結

一、交易成本理論的簡要學術發展史

管理學是一個混血兒,繼承了包括社會學、經濟學、心理學等多學科的基因,而其中經濟學的基因主要來自交易成本理論(transaction cost theory,TCT),也稱交易成本經濟學(transaction cost economics,TCE)/ the “economics of governance,” the “economics of organization”。

TCT起源於Coase(1937)的驚天一問:為什麼會有組織?

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

為什麼會有組織呢? 這個問題困擾著當時年僅27歲的羅納德科斯,那時他還是隻倫敦政經的一個助理講師。按照經濟學的邏輯,價格機制作為一雙無形的手,有效地協調著經濟活動。既然如此,組織有什麼存在的必要呢?到底什麼是組織或者企業呢?

最後一個問題的回答相對簡單:

A firm is “the system of specialized relationships which comes into existence when the direction of resources is dependent on an entrepreneur” rather than on the price mechanism (Coase, 1937: 393)。

而關於為什麼會有組織的問題,科斯的回答是“自由的”市場並非沒有成本,也就是說,交易過程本身會產生成本(“free” markets are not costless—the process of transacting creates its own costs。)。交易成本無處不在,大到正式契約簽訂時聘請律師的費用,小到和小商小販討價還價所耗費的時間和腦力成本。

然而面對科斯驚人的發問以及對於交易成本的重大發現,學界竟然在隨後長達20年的時間內建若罔聞。1960年科斯的《社會成本問題》以及1969年肯尼斯阿羅文章的出現才使得這個領域有了推進。直到20世紀70年代,UCLA的阿爾欽和德姆塞茨(1972)、阿羅(1974)等學者的文章出現,交易成本問題才算是真正引起了學界的重視。

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

但真正讓交易成本經濟學大放異彩的是奧利弗·威廉姆森(Oliver E。 Williamson)。

1971年的《生產的垂直整合》(The Vertical Integration of Production)是交易成本經濟的前傳,在這篇文章中,Williamson提供了非常多獨特的視角,為TCT的產生奠定了堅實的基礎:

(i)examined economic organization through the lens of

contract

(rather than orthodox lens of choice), (ii) described cognition in terms of

bounded rationality

, on which account all complex contracts are incomplete, (iii) made provision for

strategic behavior

(defection from the spirit of cooperation) when an outsourced good or service experienced disturbances for which the stakes are great, (iv) treated

adaptation

as the main efficiency purpose of economic organization, and (v) distinguished between investments in generic assets and

specific assets

, where a bilateral dependency relation between supplier and buyer stages was ascribed to the latter (Williamson, 2010: 677)。

之後,1975年的《市場與等級制度》正式宣告新制度主義經濟學的誕生,1985年的《資本主義的經濟制度》一書則提出了”交易成本學派“的基本理論框架。1996年,Williamson推出了TCT的集大成之作。

Williamson’s trilogy:

• Market and Hierarchies (1975);

• The Economic Institutions of Capitalism (1985); and

• The Mechanisms of Governance (1996)。

自此,交易成本經濟學的理論大廈基本完工,而後吸引瞭如潮水般的實證研究,其影響力也迅速擴大,其中管理學是除經濟學外受到影響最大的學科。

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

二、buy or make?——TCT的核心問題

The specific issue that drew me into this research project was the puzzle posed by Ronald Coase in 1937:

What efficiency factors determine when a firm produces a good or service to its own needs rather than outsource?

(Williamson, 2010)。

TCT的核心任務就是要解決這樣一個最基本的問題:

到底是買(buy)還是造(produce/make)

?或者說,

企業的邊界在哪裡

科斯的回答:

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

Coase, 1937: 394

當在組織內進行一項交易的成本低於組織外時,組織就會將這項交易放在組織內部進行,組織的邊界便擴張了。當然,組織的執行也並不是沒有成本的,否則我們就可以設立一個超級組織來管理社會生活的方方面面(Not all production can be carried out by one big firm because of the decreasing returns to management )。隨著組織的擴大,組織的管理變得越來越困難,在組織內部進行交易活動的成本也在增加。而當在組織內與組織外進行某一個交易的成本沒有差別時,企業邊界的擴張便停止了(參見下圖)。

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

三、有限理性(bounded rationality)與機會主義(opportunism)——TCT的兩個基本行為假設

1. Bounded Rationality

TCT的第一個行為假設是有限理性。作為赫爾伯特西蒙(Herbert Simon)的學生,Williamson深受其師的影響

[1]

“The capacity of the human mind for formulating and solving complex problems is very small compared with the size of problems whose solution is required for objectively rational behavior in the real world” (Simon,1957: 198)。 Agents have limits to their analytical and data processing abilities, and that therefore these agents experience constraints in processing information and in formulating and solving complex problems even when information is available(Cuypers, Hennart, Silverman, & Ertug, 2021)。

有限理性是西蒙在20世紀50年代提出的,它是說由於個體的資訊處理能力有限,因此即使個體想要按照理性行事,但也只能部分做到【“intendedly rational, but only limitedly so” (Simon, 1957: xxiv)】,甚至在資訊完備和充分的情況下也是如此。需要注意,有限理性既不是超理性,也不是非理性。

Human actors, so described, are neither hyperrational nor irrational but are attempting effectively to cope with complex contracts that are incomplete (Williamson, 2010)。

此外,有限理性包含神經生理的(neuro-physiological)的侷限和語言(language)的侷限兩個方面。

The physical limits take the form of rate and storage limits on

the abilities of individuals to receive, store, retrieve, and process information without error

。 Limited computational capacity prevents comprehensive contracting required for the standard economic welfare theorems on the existence and optimality of a competitive equilibrium to go through (Arrow, 1974)。

Williamson (1975) notes that language limits refer to

the inability of individuals to articulate their knowledge or feelings by the use of words, numbers or graphics

in ways that enable them to be understood by others。

更簡單地說,有限理性就是,對於一個問題,

既想不明白,又講不清楚

有限理性的假定對於交易成本理論而言意義重大。如果個體具有完全理性,那麼他就能輕鬆地在事前預知所有的可能情況,從而能夠制定一個不存在不確定性的完美契約。換言之,在完全理性的條件下,交易成本為零。但現實中,由於個體的有限理性,因此很難在事前就充分預知未來(it is very costly or impossible to identify future contingencies and specify ex ante),此時,組織作為市場的替代品就出現了。

2. Opportunism

第一個假定與個體能力有關,而第二個假定與人性有關。

Williamson (1975: 255) famously defined opportunism as “self-interest seeking with guile。” In other words, actors do not always share full information, provide objective assessments of likely outcomes, or behave cooperatively during the execution of economic exchanges。 (Cuypers, Hennart, Silverman, & Ertug, 2021)

總的來說,交易成本學派對於人性的基本判斷是

人性本惡(human beings are strategically untrustworthy)

。因此,為了利益最大化(maximize their payoffs),個體會採用各種詭計(guile),比如,隱瞞有用的資訊、在合適的時機背叛盟友。這些詭計大致可以分為三類:(1)事前的逆向選擇【ex ante, “adverse selection” (hidden information)】, (2) 事後的道德風險【ex post “moral hazard” (hidden action)】,以及(3) 套牢問題(hold-up problems)

[2]

這個假定對於TCT也是至關重要的。如果人人都是天使,並且信守自己的承諾,那麼人與人之間的合作、交換等活動就不存在不確定性或者風險,交易成本自然大大降低。治理(governance)也就沒有存在的必要了。

但這個假定或許會產生一個自我實現的預言(Self-fulfilling prophecy)——當我們都認為人性本惡的時候,我們就會處處提防他人,結果揣測就變成了事實(speculation becomes fact)。這個問題也讓TCT招致了很多外界的批判,他們認為TCT會讓我們的世界變得更糟。但這其實並不是TCT的本意啦。

四、資產專用性、不確定性和交易頻率——交易的三大維度(Dimensions of Transactions)

影響交易成本/治理模式的三大因素:

(1)asset specificity (the most important determinant of governance; key contractual dimension)

(2)uncertainty

(3)exchange frequency

1.資產專用性

什麼是資產專用性? 什麼是專用資產?:

1。 Whatever the particulars, the basic regularity that is associated with transactions that are supported by investments in specific assets is that

these assets cannot be redeployed to alternative uses and users without loss of productive value

(Williamson 1971, 1975, 1976, 1985; Benjamin Klein, Robert G。 Crawford, and Armen A。 Alchian 1978)。

2。

An asset is specific to a particular transaction if its value in its next-best use (i.e., in a transaction with a different party) is lower than in the present transaction.

The greater the difference between the value of an asset in its first-best and next-best use, the greater the degree of asset specificity (Klein,Crawford,&Alchian, 1978;Williamson, 1979)。

3。

Asset specificity refers to durable investments that are undertaken in support of particular transactions.

The redeployability of such investments is much lower in best alternative uses or by alternative users should the original transaction be prematurely terminated, and the specific identity of the parties to a transaction matters in these circumstances, which is to say that continuity of the relationship is valued。 Thus, contractual and organizational safeguards arise in support of such transactions。 (Mahoney, 2004: 137)

如果用愛情來做類比,那麼資產專用性意味著“我的愛只因你而有價值”。

按照Williamson(1985)的分類,有四種asset specificity:

地點專用性

(site specificity), 比如供應商在客戶附近設廠(e。g。, an electric plant and coal mine,具體案例可以參考MIT的經濟學教授喬斯克(Paul Joskow,1987)關於電力公司和煤礦之間合同的研究);

實物資產專用性

(physical asset specificity),比如為了向特定客戶提供服務所購置的專用裝置(e。g。, specialized tools);

人力資產專用性

(human asset specificity),比如專門的技術、知識(e。g。, firm-specific knowledge);

Dedicated assets

(e。g。, body dies 車身模具 produced by Fisher Body for GM cars)。當然專用資產並不僅限於以上四種。

Site specificity

refers to conditions that arise when an investment is made in close proximity to an exchange partner and in which the setup or relocation costs are high。

Physical asset specificity

refers to assets that are mobile but have features that are designed for use within a specific transaction and that have lower values in alternative uses。

Human asset specificity

relates to the degree to which the skills, knowledge, and experience of human assets have value within a specific transaction。 Finally,

dedicated assets

refer to the expansion of existing assets on behalf of the exchange partner in ways that would leave the investor with excess capacity if the transaction were to be terminated prematurely。 (Cuypers, Hennart, Silverman, & Ertug, 2021)

如果把博士學習當作一次與學術世界的交易,那麼可以說,博士階段所學的知識都具有高度的人力資產專用性,因為除了用於科研,這些知識的現實應用價值很低(have lower values in alternative uses)。

Higher levels of asset specificity are associated with more hierarchical governance。

因為有了資產專用性,雙方便產生了相互依賴。資產專用性高,意味著交易一方或者兩方投入在關係上的資源很難用於其他目的,那麼雙方關係的脆弱性就會增大。

對我而言,專有資產的概念實在太過精彩。以往的初級經濟學教科書上,談的都是標準品,而忽視了對於特殊產品(unique or imperfectly standardized goods)的關注。這一種視角的轉變

2.不確定性

Williamson (1985)將不確定性劃分為三類:

Primary (uncertainty about the state of nature);

Secondary (lack of effective communication); and

Behavioral (opportunism)。

另外的劃分方法:

Environmental uncertainty

Behavioral uncertainty

Environmental uncertainty makes it more difficult, if not impossible, to contractually specify ex ante the circumstances surrounding an exchange。

3.交易頻率

Frequency refers to the extent to which transactions recur。

頻率越高,交易成本也會隨之變化。

對於交易頻率的研究,是在三個交易維度中最少的。而在這些較少的研究中,結論也並不一致。

五、三種治理模式(Governance Modes)——Markets, Hierarchies, and Hybrids

在討論治理模式之前,首先要回答:什麼是治理?這裡引用Williamson(2010: 674)的定義:

Governance is the means by which to infuse

order

, thereby to mitigate

conflict

and realize

mutual gain

治理就是產生秩序,從而緩解衝突,實現共贏的手段。

基於有限理性與機會主義的假定,在面對不同的交易屬性(transaction attributes)時,交易主體會選擇不同的治理模式。或者說,governance modes are determined by the specific characteristics of the transaction。

Coase(1937)最初只提出了兩種治理模式:市場與層級制度。之後,Williamson(1991)又提出了混合模式,其他學者也提出了處於市場與層級制度之間的各種更具體的混合模式。我從不同的渠道找到了以下三張圖,供各位參考。

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

首先來看層級結構和市場,它倆是處於光譜最兩端的治理模式。市場強調價格,層級制度強調行政 (Hennart,1993)。極端的情況有利於理論的理解。但按照Hennart的說法,純市場模式和純層級制度模式都屬於少數,現實中最常見的是處在光譜中間的各式各樣的混合治理模式。

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

the spectrum from market to hierarchy

層級結構相對於市場的優勢(Mahoney, 2004: 120-121):

In summary, Williamson (1975) argues that the advantages of internal organization in relation to markets are:

1。 In circumstances where complex, contingent claims contracts are infeasible and sequential spot markets are hazardous, internal organization facilitates adaptive, sequential decision-making that economizes on bounded rationality;

2。 Faced with present or prospective small-numbers exchange relations, internal organization attenuates opportunism;

3。 Convergent expectations are promoted that reduce uncertainty;

4。 Conditions of asymmetric information (information impactedness) are more easily overcome and, when conditions of asymmetric information appear, are less likely to give rise to opportunistic behavior; and

5。 A more satisfying trading atmosphere sometimes develops internally。

內部組織有利於連續且具有適應性的決策;

面對不頻繁的交換關係,內部組織可以降低機會主義;

組織可以降低不確定性(North (1990) argues that institutions reduce uncertainty by providing a structure to everyday life);

組織可以降低資訊不對稱,從而減少機會主義行為的發生。

組織內部有時會產生一個更加和諧的交易氛圍。

無論是市場、層級制度或者混合模式,它們基本上都基於法律體系。但現實中還存在基於關係的治理模式(relation-based governance)。受到法學家MacNeil (1974, 1978)等人的影響,1979年,Williamson引入了relational governance。這種獨特的模式有賴於私人秩序(“private ordering”)

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六、總結

Assumptions

(1) bounded rationality

(2) opportunism

Dimensions of Transactions

(1) asset specificity

(2) uncertainty(3) exchange frequency

Logic

When exchange hazards (i。e。, asset specificity, uncertainty, exchange frequency) are high, which means transaction costs are high, then firms make rather than buy。

Conclusions

When transaction costs are high, firms/hierarchies are more efficient than the market。

交易成本理論(Transaction Cost Theory)——導讀及預備知識

Cuypers, Hennart, Silverman, &;amp;amp;amp;amp; Ertug, 2021

參考

^

Williamson於1960-1963年參加了在卡內基梅隆大學Graduate School of Industrial Administration的跨學科博士專案。該專案由Herbert Simon為主要負責人,其他著名老師包括James March, and Richard Cyert。以上三位都是橫跨多個領域的大師人物,他們的研究涉及面極廣,不僅包括有限理性,還包括了the specification of goals, intertemporal regularities (wherein organization takes on “a life of its own”), the critical importance of adaptation, the reliance within the operating parts on routines, and, more generally, the “architecture of complexity”。除此之外,三人都有傳世之作:Models of Man (Simon 1957b), Organizations (March and Simon 1958), and the Behavioral Theory of the Firm (Cyert and March 1963)

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所謂“套牢問題” ,是企業理論中的一個經典問題,它指的是在兩家企業以市場合同形式建立的供求關係中,由於資產專用性的原因造成一方對另一方的依賴,從而導致投資不足。譬如,在汽車產業中,由於物質資本和人力資本具有專用性,零部件企業很容易對整車企業的採購形成一種依賴:因為你已經為配套生產這家企業所需要的零部件進行了大量的專用投資,不可能輕易轉產其他產品-實際上你已被“套牢”在這家企業身上。一旦被“套牢” ,就會陷於被動,很難再與對方平等地討價還價,因為他可以以終止合同相要挾。為了避免自己被套牢,陷於被動,理性的選擇是不進行或者儘量少進行專用投資。但這樣做的結果是企業投資不足,整個汽車產業也不可能是高效率的。

^

“private ordering”—resolution of disputes by the two parties to an exchange, rather than by pursuing legal recourse via third-party courts。 (Cuypers, Hennart, Silverman, & Ertug, 2021)